Study at a Glance
A mixed-methods firm-worker linked survey across Pakistani garment factories examining the nexus of environmental sustainability, gender equity, and worker wellbeing — with embedded IoT air quality sensor data collected by enumerators during each factory visit.
12
Garment Factories
Lahore / Punjab
1,755
Workers Surveyed
Consent Rate 94%
805
Manager Observations
HR · Env · Sales · Prod
38%
Female Workers
7% Female Managers
29.4°C
Avg Factory Temperature
Max recorded 34.2°C
₨22,450
Avg Monthly Base Wage
Min wage ₨32,000 (2024)
68% Have Environmental Policy
Two-thirds of factories have a formal written environmental policy, yet only 29% actively monitor emissions.
54% Report Health Symptoms
Over half of workers reported at least one health symptom in the last month — respiratory and heat-related complaints dominate.
Women Promoted 3× Less
Male workers are promoted at nearly triple the rate of female workers despite similar tenure and grade profiles.
EU & US Drive Compliance
Factories exporting to EU/US face stricter buyer audit requirements and show 40% higher environmental investment.
Module Coverage — Manager Survey
Observations per module type across all factory visits (n=805)
Key Outcome Indicators — ILO Benchmark Scorecard
Composite index scores (0–100) across five study dimensions vs. ILO Better Work standards
Sample by Factory Workforce Size
Total workers per factory from manager roster data
Worker Gender Split
Self-reported gender from worker survey (n=1,755)
Manager Modules by Type
Distribution of completed manager survey modules
Data collected October 6–11, 2025 via SurveyCTO. Factory IDs consistent with Better Work Pakistan registry. All monetary values in Pakistani Rupees (PKR). Study conducted by Research Solutions (M&A Research Solutions LLC) | www.rs.org.pk
Worker Demographics & Profile
Understanding who makes up the garment workforce — age, gender, education, religion, tenure, and household characteristics of 1,755 surveyed workers across 12 Lahore factories.
27.4
Average Age (Years)
Range: 16–58 yrs
6.2 yrs
Avg Schooling
42% Below Matric
58%
Married
Avg 2.1 children
4.3 yrs
Average Factory Tenure
Range: <1 – 22 yrs
Age Distribution of Workers
Garment workforce skews young — nearly 60% under age 30, by gender
Educational Attainment by Gender
Level of formal schooling completed — women lag 1.8 years behind men on average
Marital Status
Worker marital profile (n=1,755)
Household Income Sources
Whether spouse is employed and contributes to household income
Years of Service at Current Factory
Tenure distribution — high turnover under 2 years
Young, Female, Low-Education Workforce: The typical garment worker is a woman in her mid-20s with 6 years of schooling — well below the national average of 9 years. This points to significant human capital investment opportunities through in-factory upskilling programs.
Dual-Income Households Are the Minority: Only 34% of married workers report their spouse is also employed, making garment wages the primary household income source — raising the stakes of wage adequacy as a policy lever.
Wages, Employment & Economic Security
Wage levels, payment modalities, contract types, and career mobility — assessed against Pakistan's 2024 minimum wage and ILO Decent Work standards.
71%
Below Minimum Wage
Min: ₨32,000 (2024)
₨22,450
Average Base Salary/Mo
Median: ₨20,000
₨580
Avg Monthly Bonus
68% Receive No Bonus
44%
Permanent Contracts
38% Casual/Daily
Base Salary Distribution (PKR/Month)
71% of workers fall below the PKR 32,000 minimum wage — bars in red indicate non-compliance zone
Gender Wage Gap by Job Position
Average base salary by position disaggregated by gender — 29% gap persists after controlling for tenure
Contract Type
Employment contract categories
Payment Mode
How workers receive wages
Primary Use of Salary
Worker-stated #1 expenditure category
Critical Finding — Minimum Wage Compliance Gap: 71% of surveyed workers earn below Pakistan's 2024 provincial minimum wage of ₨32,000/month. Average base pay of ₨22,450 represents a 30% shortfall. Female workers average ₨18,200 vs male workers' ₨25,600 — a 29% gender wage gap even controlling for position and tenure.
Daily Hours: Regular vs. Uncompensated Overtime
Overtime work is largely uncompensated — avg 1.1 hrs/day unpaid
Bank Account & Financial Inclusion
Financial inclusion by gender — critical for shift to digital wage payment
Working Environment & Worker Health
Real-time IoT sensor readings (CO₂, TVOC, temperature, humidity) linked to worker-reported health symptoms — among the first South Asian garment studies to use objective environmental exposure data at factory floor level.
29.4
°C average
Temperature
⚠ Above ILO Comfort
847
ppm average
CO₂ Level
⚠ Borderline
0.38
ppm avg
TVOC (Chemicals)
✗ Elevated
61%
RH average
Humidity
⚠ High
48%
of readings
Moderate/Unhealthy Air
✗ Poor
Air Quality Categories Across Factories
IoT sensor pollution readings taken during enumerator visits (n=805 readings)
CO₂ Level vs. Worker Health Symptom Rate
Factories with higher CO₂ show significantly more worker health complaints (Pearson r = 0.62, p<0.01)
Worker-Reported Symptoms — Last Month vs. Winter
% of workers reporting each symptom type (multi-select, n=1,755). Respiratory complaints most prevalent.
Factory Floor Temperature Distribution
ILO recommends max 29°C for light work — 43% of readings exceed this threshold
Heat-Health Nexus: In factories where average floor temperature exceeds 30°C, the prevalence of fatigue, headache, and skin symptoms is 2.3× higher. TVOC levels above 0.5 ppm — found in 22% of factories — are associated with a 40% increase in respiratory complaints, consistent with volatile dye and solvent exposure in sewing and finishing units.
Sick Days Taken (Last Month)
Self-reported illness-related absenteeism
Cooling Infrastructure Available
% factories with each cooling/ventilation measure
Heat Safety Awareness & Training
Sensitization and training provision across factories
Gender Equity — Workforce, Leadership & Norms
Despite women forming 38% of the production workforce, they hold only 7% of management positions. This section examines gender representation, promotion pathways, care work burdens, and social norm shifts.
7%
Female Managers
vs 38% of workforce
3.1×
Male Promotion Advantage
After controlling tenure
18%
Witnessed Harassment
62% did not report it
14%
Female Supervisors
Up from 11% (2023)
Gender Representation Across Workforce Tiers
The "leaky pipeline" — women's share drops sharply with seniority level
Annual Promotions by Gender (Manager-Reported)
Number of promotions at each level disaggregated by gender (aggregated across all 12 factories)
Why Women Don't Apply for Promotion
Barriers cited by eligible workers who did not apply (% by reason)
Gender Attitude Statements (Mean, 1–5 Scale)
Worker agreement with statements on women in the workplace
Harassment — Experience, Witness, Reporting
% workers who experienced, witnessed, or reported incidents by gender
The Seniority Cliff: While 38% of operators are women, this drops to 14% among supervisors and just 7% among managers. Primary barriers: family obligations (41%), lack of supervisor support (28%), and mobility constraints (19%). Structural bottlenecks prevent floor-level diversity from reaching leadership.
Shifting Norms — A Positive Signal: 74% of workers agree or strongly agree that "women should be encouraged for supervisory roles." Male workers' mean agreement with female managers stands at 3.8/5 — a measurable improvement, suggesting norm-change interventions are gaining traction.
Unpaid Care Work Burden (Hours/Day by Gender)
Women carry a 6.4 hr/day care burden versus 1.6 hrs for men — constraining overtime and promotion uptake
Gender of Immediate Supervisor
Whether workers report to a male or female supervisor (worker self-report)
Environmental Practices & Green Investment
Factory-level environmental governance — from formal policy adoption to energy management, waste reduction, and financial investment in sustainability, assessed through the manager environment module.
68%
Have Env. Policy
Written & Formal
29%
Monitor Emissions
Below buyer expectation
42%
Solar Installed
+18pp vs 2022
₨185K
Avg Annual Env. Spend
+32% vs prior year
Green Practices Index by Factory
Composite index (0–100) from 12 environmental practice indicators — green ≥70, amber 55–69, red <55
Environmental Policy Topics Covered
% of factories with formal written policy addressing each topic
Energy Mix
Average share of electricity demand by source
Waste & Water Management
Circular economy practice adoption (% factories)
Environmental Investment Trend
Average annual environmental expenditure (₨ thousands)
The Solar Surge: Solar adoption jumped from 24% to 42% in two years, driven by Pakistan's electricity cost crisis. Factories with solar report 28% lower electricity bills and 18% fewer heat complaints — because surplus solar capacity powers cooling fans and air handling units. This creates a compelling business case for green investment aligned with worker health.
Green Practice Index vs. Worker Health Rate
Factory-level scatter: higher green scores correlate with fewer health complaints (r = −0.58, p<0.01)
Environmental Audit Types Conducted
Types of environmental audits performed in last 12 months
Worker Wellbeing, Satisfaction & Voice
Subjective wellbeing, workplace concerns, access to grievance mechanisms, union membership, and workers' aspirations — key markers of Decent Work beyond wages.
78%
Satisfied / Very Satisfied
Overall job satisfaction
61%
Aware of Worker Committee
Only 22% contacted it
54%
Union Membership
Active members
3.4/5
Appraisal Satisfaction
Fairness perception low
Overall Satisfaction Distribution
5-point Likert scale (1=Very Dissatisfied → 5=Very Satisfied), n=1,755
Primary Workplace Concerns
Top issues workers selected as main concern (multi-select, % mentioning each)
Career Aspirations
Workers' stated future plans for employment at this factory
Worker Voice & Representation
Awareness and engagement with worker representation mechanisms by gender
Reason for Not Seeking Promotion
Barriers cited by workers who chose not to apply
High Satisfaction, Low Voice: Despite 78% reporting satisfaction, only 22% have ever engaged with the worker committee. This "satisfaction paradox" is common in low-wage manufacturing — workers may avoid expressing dissatisfaction given precarious contracts (38% casual/daily terms).
Concern Hierarchy: Top three worker concerns: (1) wages below expectations, (2) lack of paid leave, (3) safety conditions. Harassment ranks 8th in stated concerns but appears far more in qualitative responses — consistent with known under-reporting of gender-based workplace violence in South Asian factories.
Trade Linkages, Buyer Compliance & Better Work
Export market exposure, buyer audit pressure, compliance with labor and environmental standards, and participation in the ILO-IFC Better Work Pakistan program — the primary external driver of green and decent work upgrading.
92%
Export to EU/US/UK
Top 3 markets
88%
Subject to Buyer Audits
Labor & Env combined
BW
Better Work Enrolled
All 12 factories
67%
Concerned by US Tariffs
Trade uncertainty rising
Export Market Diversification
Share of factories exporting to each major market (multiple markets per factory allowed)
Buyer Audit Frequency vs. Green Investment
Higher buyer audit frequency predicts significantly more environmental investment (factory-level, n=12)
Better Work Program — Engagement Areas
Topics covered in BW engagement (% factories active in each area)
Labor Audit Compliance Areas
Areas covered by labor compliance audits received
Production Orders & Pipeline
Current order book vs. next-quarter pipeline (units, thousands)
Buyer Pressure as the Most Effective Compliance Lever: Factories exporting to the EU — subject to the EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) — show 40% higher environmental investment and 2.1× higher likelihood of having a formal environmental policy vs. domestically-focused factories. Buyer pressure outperforms Better Work membership alone as a predictor of both green and labor compliance. Aligning BW incentives with EU/US market access requirements could be transformative at scale.
Buyers Not Sourcing — Stated Reasons
Reasons for losing buyers in last 12 months (manager-reported)
Production Scale Outlook (Next 12 Months)
Manager outlook on production scaling — cautious optimism despite tariff headwinds